Introduction to "Beowulf" (Translated by Seamus Heaney)

The chart above shows samples of the changes in the English language. 

#1 is Old English or AngloSaxon (circa 450-1066 CE). 

#2 is Middle English (circa 1066-1450 AD). 

#3 is Modern English from about the time of Shakespeare. 

#4 is another sample of Modern English, but it is more recent than #3. 

Background:  Old English Poetry & "Beowulf"

Beowulf is the idealized warrior of a heroic age and the exemplar of what the Anglo-Saxons chiefly admired as masculine qualities. He is fearless but not foolhardy, uncomplicated but intelligent, serious but not dull. He is thoroughly adjusted in mind and body to a soldierly code and a “kill and get killed” expectancy. His stolid, essentially pessimistic view of life is reinforced by the author of the work with nature scenes of somber magnificence. Ironically, the first great work of English literature is set entirely in Scandinavia without any mention of England or the English.

Definition: Epic or Heroic Poem

A long narrative poem on a great and serious subject, related in an elevated style, and centered on a heroic or quasi-divine figure on whose actions depends the fate of a tribe, a nation, or the human race.

Characteristics of Old English Verse

1. Four stress line. Each line of Anglo-Saxon verse contained four accented syllables.

2. A pause or caesura divided each line into two staves . Each stave contained two stressed syllables.

3. Alliteration to bind the line together and reinforce rhythmic effect.

4. Repetition through synonymous words or phrases. This parallelism resembles that of Old Testament Hebraic poetry and allows for much of the same kind of stately, solemn progress and emphasis.

5. End-stopping of the lines.

6. The use of the kenning, a compound word of metaphoric quality.
       Examples:

          swan-road = the sky
          battle-sweat = blood
          peace-weaver = wife / mother
          ring-giver = generous king

7. Specialized poetic vocabulary which employed words unfamiliar to current conversation.

8. An elevated and aristocratic tone pervaded, since poetry was primarily intended for recital with harp accompaniment to gathered nobles and warriors in mead halls.

9. A rapid narrative style, which often omitted explanatory details and abruptly turned from one event to another.

10. Oral, not written composition . The scop (poet) composed and the gleeman (minstrel) chanted OE verses long before they were committed to manuscript.

Pagan & Christian Elements in "Beowulf"

Pagan elements in "Beowulf," include:

• The dead are cremated

• Omens are observed to direct human conduct

• Sacrifices are vowed at the temple of idols

• The praise of worldly glory

• The theme of blood vengeance

• Frequent references to the power of Wyrd (fate)

However, the "Beowulf" poet shows knowledge of and employs terminology from the Christian Scriptures and liturgy.

• Cain (putative ancestor of Grendel

• Giants before the flood

• The deluge

• Satan

• Virtues of moderation, unselfishness, and service to others are highly praised

• The final tribute to Beowulf by his faithful thane

"Enjoy the unit humans!"